Chapter Seven: Marijuana Legalization Polls

Oregon, Alaska, D.C Next to Vote on Legal Marijuana

Recently I came across an article from yahoo.com that came from "Constitution Daily" from the National Constitution Center. This article discussed the upcoming polls in Oregon, Alaska, and District of Columbia (D.C) and in particular focused on the topic of marijuana legalization.

In early November, voters in the three aforementioned states will be able to decide on the legal status of marijuana as they did in Colorado and Washington back during the election of 2012. The status of marijuana in these two states are constantly developing even to this day. Originally, the states allowed recreational marijuana sales and use, and now officials have approved a tax and distribution infrastructure. Despite these state laws conflicting with federal regulation, the Justice Department will not criminally prosecute recreational marijuana users and state-approved growers and vendors in the states in which the recreational sale and use of marijuana is legal.

An issue arises with the District of Columbia. When it was originally founded from land owned by Maryland and Virginia, it was intended to act as a safe and secure district; it was made clear that the District of Columbia was not a state. This makes the legalization process different than other states and there may be resistance in the legalization of marijuana. In the case of Oregon and Alaska, the November 4th ballot allows for possession, growth of limited plants, and sale of limited amounts of marijuana for personal use. In D.C. however, the sale of marijuana would not be legalized. The aspect that all these will have in common? A state tax on the cultivation and sale of marijuana.

Critique of Mainstream Media

Politically speaking, I had to educate myself as I lacked sufficient knowledge in the subject to truly be able to critically analyze any article on the political aspect of marijuana. Although this article lacked any sort of scientific knowledge, it still served it's purpose; to shed light on the current political tides and the changes that may soon take place in early November. This article was a sort of snap-shot of the upcoming political events that could drastically effect marijuana's status in 3 states. 

I think within a week the marijuana movement can either be fueled even further, or the movement could come to a sudden halt. If the states were to pass the laws, it would be incentive for other states to continue with the "trend" (for a lack of better term) and may be the first of many changing state policies. It can further build upon the changes that Colorado and Washington have caused across the nation and will make 2016 one of the most important years for marijuana and its legalization. On the other hand, if the state voters choose to not pass the changes, then the momentum that had built up in the marijuana movement would possibly come to a sudden halt.

I enjoyed the fact that it put into perspective the different legalization measures that the polls would use. While all the poll questions are relatively similar, they each have nuances that make them subtly different. For example, D.C. polls aren't considering the legalization of the sale of marijuana. Oregon allows for possession of 8 ounces and 4 plants of marijuana, while Alaska allows for possession of 1 ounce and 6 plants of marijuana. It's interesting to see how each state has their own differences when it comes to the cultivation, possession, sale, and use of marijuana yet they all make it legal (with the exception of D.C.). This coming week, in my opinion, will mark either a revolution in marijuana status in the United States or will completely cease the momentum built up by marijuana activists. 

References

• http://blog.constitutioncenter.org/2014/10/oregon-alaska-d-c-next-to-vote-on-legal-marijuana/

Image Source

• http://www.eastbayri.com/tag/election-2014/

Chapter Six: Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

Frequently Asked Questions

• What is marijuana?
• Marijuana is the flower portion of the female cannabis plant that exists it three distinctive subtypes, based on their primary effects. The subtypes are cannabis sativa, cannabis indica, and cannabis ruteralis.
• What is THC?
• Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the primary psychoactive agent in marijuana. THC belongs to a family of cannabinoids, which resembles molecules synthesized naturally in the body. It functions primarily by indirectly increasing levels of dopamine, the neurotransmitter associated with the reward and pleasure pathway in the brain. 
• What are the effects of marijuana?
• Euphoria, increase in appetite, decrease in short term memory, dry mouth, reddening of eyes, impaired motor skills, coordination, and concentration, relaxed state of muscles, increased heart rate, lowered blood pressure, and possibly paranoia and anxiety.
• What are the forms of marijuana?
• Marijuana comes in many forms, such as the normal dried flower form, as kief (powder),  as hashish (resin-like substance), hash oil (solvent extraction), as an infusion (oil containing THC), and as a tincture (extraction in alcoholic substance).
• How is marijuana consumed?
• Marijuana can be smoked using rolling papers or a water pipe, it can be inhaled as vapor by heating the plant, it can be eaten as an edible (food made with oil containing THC), or it can be ingested as a tea.
• What are different uses of marijuana?
• Marijuana is used recreationally (3rd most popular drug after tobacco and alcohol), is used medically to treat certain ailments, and it is used industrially in the manufacturing of textiles, paper, paints, clothing, plastics, and cosmetics. 
• Where is marijuana legal?
• Marijuana is legal medicinally in 21 states, and legal recreationally in only two states (Colorado and Washington). 
• Is marijuana a gateway drug?
• Evidence shows that marijuana is not a gateway drug and may even serve as an "exit" drug in which people withdrawing from hard drugs (heroine, cocaine) use marijuana to alleviate symptoms associated with withdrawal. More over, as the number of hard drugs declines, the number of marijuana users increases.
• Is marijuana addictive?
• Physically, marijuana is not addictive. However, some evidence suggests that any dependence is psychological in nature. Only 9% of users become addicted, a percentage lower than alcohol, tobacco, and even caffeine. 
• Is marijuana dangerous or unhealthy?
• Marijuana is safer than most common drugs, such as alcohol and tobacco. Alcohol is closely linked to higher risk motor vehicle accidents, and smoking cigarettes has been found to be causative of lung cancer. There have been no long term effects on the brain or on the lungs, and has even been shown to induce many health benefits.
• Can marijuana kill you?
• Not one person has died by overdosing on marijuana. It would take 40,000 times the normal amount of THC to kill you, meaning smoking 800 joints in one sitting! In reality, if you did overdose, it would be due to the carbon monoxide poisoning, not the THC.

Any questions you have I didn't answer? Let me know! I will do my best to get back to you individually or perhaps add it to this list.

References

1. http://norml.org/aboutmarijuana/item/good-plant?category_id=730
2. http://norml.org/aboutmarijuana/item/violent-acts?category_id=730
3. http://www.drugpolicy.org/drug-facts/10-facts-about-marijuana
4. http://www.weather.com/health/shocking-things-you-dont-know-about-weed-20140407?pageno=1
5. http://www.chicagonow.com/chicago-medical-marijuana/2013/10/5-amazing-things-you-didnt-know-about-marijuana/
6. http://www.theweedblog.com/42-0-facts-about-marijuana-and-why-it-should-be-legal/
7. http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/marijuana
8. Mahmoud A. ElSohly (2007). Marijuana and the Cannabinoids. Springer. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-59259-947-9.
9. Ethan B Russo (2013). Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential. Routledge. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-136-61493-4.
10. UNODC. World Drug Report 2010. United Nations Publication. p. 198. Retrieved 2010-07-19.
11.  Mitch Earleywine (2002). Understanding Marijuana: A New Look at the Scientific Evidence. Oxford University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-19-513893-1.
12. Leslie L. Iversen (2000). The Science of Marijuana. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515110-7.
13.  Castle/Murray/D'Souza (2004). Marijuana and Madness. Cambridge University Press. p. 35. ISBN 879-1-139-50267-2.
14. J. E. Joy, S. J. Watson, Jr., and J. A. Benson, Jr. (1999). Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base. Washington, D.C. National Academy of Sciences Press. ISBN 0-585-05800-8.
15. http://www.drugs.com/illicit/marijuana.html
16. http://norml.org/marijuana
17. http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/marijuana

Chapter Five: Myths and Misconceptions

Myths and Misconceptions

We'll begin this discussion by identifying a few common ideas and thoughts about marijuana and marijuana users, then analyze the evidence that supports (or argues against) the belief. 

1. Marijuana is a gateway drug
2. Marijuana is addictive and dependence is increasing
3. Marijuana is as harmful as tobacco and alcohol
4. Marijuana use is correlated with mental health disorders and decrease in cognitive abilities
5. Marijuana can kill you by overdose
6. Marijuana is becoming stronger and more potent
7. Marijuana is correlated with crime and aggression
8. Marijuana makes you an unsafe driver

Marijuana is a gateway drug

The number of hard drug users are going down, while marijuana user numbers are going up. Studies show that 75% of all Americans who use marijuana have never used hard drugs such as cocaine and heroine. Interestingly, those who started drinking alcohol were more likely to partake in hard-drug use. New evidence suggests that marijuana can function as an "exit drug" by helping people reduce or eliminate their use of more harmful drugs by easing withdrawal symptoms. 

Marijuana is addictive and dependence is increasing

Research show that only 9% of users become addicted to marijuana, more than any other illicit drug (even caffeine!). Moreover, marijuana does not cause physical dependence. Any dependence is psychologically constructed. It is possible to experience mild withdrawal symptoms, but unlike withdrawal from alcohol, it cannot kill you. Surveys have demonstrated that most of those who have smoked marijuana in the past do not become regular users. Rates of marijuana dependence have not increased over the past 10 years.

Marijuana is as harmful as tobacco and alcohol

Marijuana is in fact safer than tobacco and alcohol. Not only has no one directly died as a result of marijuana use, but alcohol use is one of the leading causes of motor vehicle accidents and can lead to death by poisoning. Smoking cigarettes has been directly correlated to lung cancer, but smoking marijuana has not been proven to have any detrimental effects on the lungs. The annual death rate of marijuana is zero, and is actually lessening the number of people who use tobacco and alcohol. 

Marijuana use is correlated with mental health disorders and decrease in cognitive abilities

No harm from marijuana has been found on the brain, even from long term high-dose use. In fact, some studies suggest that marijuana can help in neurogenesis, the creation of new neurons in the brain. Researchers have found no evidence of brain abnormalities in monkeys who inhaled 4-5 marijuana cigarettes every day for a year. Marijuana does not kill brain cells. Some studies have shown decreased IQ in adulthood when individuals begin smoking as a teenager, but the effects were not found when an individual begins smoking as an adult. While smoking causes a temporary short-term memory deficit, people are still able to recall information they have already learned. 

Some studies have shown that there is a link between marijuana use and mental illness, but there is a lack of compelling evidence to support such claims that marijuana is a causal risk factor in the development of psychiatric disorders. Most tellingly, population rates of schizophrenia and other psychiatric illnesses have remained flat even when marijuana user rates have increased. Emerging evidence indicates it may alleviate psychiatric symptoms, and may have an anti-psychotic property. 

Marijuana can kill you by overdose

There has yet to be one documented case of overdosing on marijuana. Animal test shave shown that extremely high doses of marijuana is needed to have a lethal effect. You would need to consumer 40,000 times the normal dose (or 800 joints) of marijuana in one sitting to have a severe effect.  In fact, if you did manage to overdose, what would kill you is the level of carbon monoxide in your body, not the THC!

Marijuana is becoming stronger and more potent

Increase in potency is occurring, but this is largely due to prohibition. While the statement may be true, it can be misleading. Since access to marijuana is risky and limited, both consumers and producers are incentivized to use or sell higher potency material. The same trend was seen during alcohol prohibition. When access is regulated and controlled, there are a wider variety of available potencies. 

Marijuana is correlated with crime and aggression

There is absolutely no link to marijuana and crime or aggression. Scholars and government commissions for the most part agree that marijuana in no way causes crime. Almost all human and animal studies show that marijuana decreases rather than increases aggression. Moreover, those who were drunk showed far more aggression that those were were high.

Marijuana makes you an unsafe driver

Studies have shown that people who smoke marijuana have less motor vehicle accidents compared to those who drink alcohol. It has even been suggested that it makes people more cautious and attentive drivers. Accident studies have found that drivers who test positive for THC often show no signs of impairment, and in some instances even may drive more safely. 

References

• http://norml.org/aboutmarijuana/item/good-plant?category_id=730
• http://norml.org/aboutmarijuana/item/violent-acts?category_id=730
• http://www.drugpolicy.org/drug-facts/10-facts-about-marijuana
• http://www.weather.com/health/shocking-things-you-dont-know-about-weed-20140407?pageno=1
• http://www.chicagonow.com/chicago-medical-marijuana/2013/10/5-amazing-things-you-didnt-know-about-marijuana/
• http://www.theweedblog.com/42-0-facts-about-marijuana-and-why-it-should-be-legal/
• http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/marijuana

Chapter Four: Critical Analysis of Scientific Article (I)

Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannibinol Inhibits Epithelial Growth-Factor-Induced Lung Cancer Cell Migration in Vitro as Well as Its Growth and Metastasis in Vivo

This post will introduce you to the first of two anyleses on research articles that focus on specific types of cancer. The first article introduces the topic of THC in the treatment of lung cancer. It will be broken down to better dissect the research article. 

Main Research Question

• Effects of THC on the EGF-induced growth and metastasis on human cell lung cancer in vitro (meaning in the laboratory)
• Effects of THC on tumor growth and lung metastasis in vivo (meaning inside an organism) 

Methods

• Western Blot and Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR)
• Examined expression of cannabinoid receptor in human NSCLC (Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer) cell lines
• Cell Line #1 - A549
• Cell Line #2 - SW-1573
• Examined expression of EGFR (Epithelial Growth Factor Receptor) in human NSCLC cell lines
• Treatment with THC (In Vitro)
• Examined effect of THC on cell migration/motility (EGF and EGFR play important roles in cell migration)
• Percent colonization of the wound areas in cancer cell lines compared to vehicle-treated EGF-stimulated wounds (scratch wound assay)
• Tryptan Blue Staining
• Examined cell viability
• Treatment with THC (In Vivo)
• Intravenous injection through lateral tail vein of SCID (severe combined immunodeficient) mice
• Injection of THC (or vehicle) peritumorally daily for 21 says
• Mice Tumor Sample Analysis
• Analyzed cell proliferation, vascularization, and phosphorylation of signaling molecules FAK, ERK1, ERK2, and AKT

Results

• Western Blot and RT-PCR
• Expressed CB1 and CB2 receptors
• Treatment with THC (In Vitro)
• THC induced cell rounding which led to failure of the cell to produce characteristic protrusions
• No effect on viability of cells
• Induce apoptosis and inhibit proliferation
• Decreased EGF-stimulated cell migration
• Inhibited EGF-induced transwall migration in a dose-dependent manner
• No effect on EGFR expression or phosphorylation
• Enhanced EGF-induced phosphorylation of FAK at tyrosine 397 and inhibition of AKT phosphorylation
• Inhibited EGF-induced invasion in dose-dependent manner 
• Tryptan Blue Staining
• Concentration of THC did not have any significant effect on viability of cell lines
• Treatment with THC (In Vivo)
• Surface lung metastases were significantly reduced
• Significantly reduced tumor weight and number lesions
• Tumor growth in THC-treated animals was inhibited compared to that in vehicle-treated animals
• No significant alterations in physiological parameters like body or liver weight were observed
• Mice Tumor Sample Analysis
• Inhibit in vivo tumor cell proliferation and vascularization determined by Ki67 and CD31 immunostaining
• Phosphorylation of FAK, ERK 1, ERK 2, and AKT were reduced in THC-treated tumors 

Analysis of Results (Discussion)

• Comparison to Previous Literature
• Previous studies demonstrated tumor-promoting or antineoplastic effects of THC, but no research is on the effect of EGFR-mediated growth and motility of lung cancer
• Expression of CB2 receptors in A549 cells was questioned, but this study confirmed CB1 and CB2 expression on both A549 and SW-1573
• THC treatment attenuated EGF-induced morphological changes like cell elongation and generation of protrusions leading to rounding and reduction of mobility
• Antimigratory effect of THC was previously found
• Advancement in Scientific Knowledge
• EGFR-mediated activation of MAP kinases has reported to regulate EGF-induced cell migration and invasion – this study observed a reduction in EGF-induced ERK1/2 and JNK1/2 phosphorylation
• Other studies have reported THC-induced activation of AKT/PKB – this study found that THC reduced AKT phosphorylation induced by EGF
• THC exhibits equal affinity toward CB1 and CB2
• The high case:fatality ratio observed in lung cancer is attributed to a poor response to therapy and the aggressive biological nature of the disease
• High expression of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) is common in non-small cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC) and correlates to a more aggressive disease, resistance to chemotherapy, and poor prognosis
• Additional Questions
• Molecular mechanism involved in THC-mediated inhibition of chemotaxis induced by EGF are not well characterized
• Modulation of EGFR expression with THC
• Function of FAK, ERK 1/2, and AKT in tumors

Molecular Biology Techniques Used in Experiment

• Western Blot: analytical technique that detects specific proteins in a sample that is extracted from a tissue sample. Using gel electrophoresis, the proteins in the sample are separated by molecular weight using a current that passes through the gel, which pulls smaller proteins further down the gel and leaves larger proteins closer to the top of the gel (wells)
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): method of amplifying copies of a gene on DNA. Typically it involves denaturing of the DNA strand (using heat to separate the strands) followed by the annealing (binding) of a primer that is complimentary to a region of the nucleotide strand, and lastly the the elongation of the strand via DNA polymerase (enzyme that adds nucleotides to already-existing nucleotide strand
• Tryptan Blue Staining: visualization technique that selectively dyes dead tissues or cell the color blue, usually used to assess the tissue viability

The entire article (with images!) can be found here:

http://www.readcube.com/articles/10.1038/sj.onc.1210641

References

Preet, A., Ganju, R., & Groopman, J. (2007) Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol inhibits epithelial growth factor-induced lung cancer cell mgiration in vitro as well as its growth and metastasis in vivo. Oncogene. 27(3): 339-46.